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Nathan's spaceTalk to me on QQ532684114! December 22 research paper specificationsI. Getting Set
1.
Setting the
English language version 2.
Turning on
and setting the spelling and grammar 3.
Page settings 4.
Font type and
size 5. Paragraph and line spacing [Line Spacing 1.5; Leave a line between paragraphs.] II. Editing
6.
Headings and
body text 7.
Punctuation 8.
Inserting
tables and graphs 9.
Inserting a
header 10.
Inserting
endnotes 11.
Tidying up
(page breaks etc.) 12.
Checking
grammar and spelling 13.
Using Chinese
in an English paper III. The layout
14.
Title page
15.
The second
page
16.
The main body 17.
The
references
18.
Saving the
document: filename; file type 19. The deadline Midnight, January 5th 2007. If received after this date, or not received, you will fail the course.
Research Paper Title (18)
Your Name (14)(Chinese only please) Your
Student Number (e.g. 3rd January 2007)
Course: Advanced English Writing Supervisor: Nathan Dunbar
Number of words: December 21 research paper - structureThe IntroductionIntroductions usually have three parts:
In the first part of the introduction, the presentation of the problem, or the research inquiry, state the problem that you are going to research clearly. Then, sketch the background on the problem and briefly review other people’s research on it to give your readers a context to show them how your research inquiry fits into the subject area. You may tell why this problem has become a problem, why previous attempts have failed to solve it, and/or why you think this particular problem is important. You can also mention what benefits are to be gained from solving this problem or exploring this topic from your perspective. In the second part of the introduction, state your purpose and focus. Here, you often present your actual thesis, or hypothesis, although this is not always necessary. The third part, the summary or overview of the paper, briefly introduces the main ideas that will be talked about, and gives readers an outline for the whole paper. Please note that the introduction is seldom written first. In fact, it is often written last, because the precise thesis and outline may not be ready until the results have been collected and analyzed and conclusions formed. However, the first two parts of the introduction above should at least be prepared before the research is begun, so that you know clearly what you want to achieve from the research. The Methods SectionThe methods section of your research paper should describe in detail what methodology and special materials, if any, you used to think through or perform your research. You should include any materials you used or designed for yourself, such as questionnaires or interview questions, to generate data or information for your research paper. You want to include any methodologies that are specific to your particular field of study, such as lab procedures for a lab experiment or data-gathering instruments for field research. If you are writing a literary research paper, you would want to use the methodologies scholars use to examine texts and place the author and the literary piece into its literary and historical context. If you are writing a business management research paper, you would want to use the methodologies that place your discussion in the context of business and economics. Next to your own critical review of the scholarship in your discipline, your teacher is the best source of what methodologies are used in it. Many writers of research begin with this section because it is often the easiest to write. This section is usually written in past tense. The Results SectionHow you present the results of your research depends on what kind of research you did, your subject matter, and your readers’ expectations. Quantitative information, data that can be measured, can be presented systematically and economically in tables, charts, and graphs. You may include some commentary to explain to your reader what your findings are and how to read them, and to point out any important trends and/or contrasts. Qualitative information, which includes brief descriptions, explanations, or instructions, can also be presented in tables, but this kind of descriptive or explanatory information is often presented in essay-like writing or even lists. In the accompanying explanation and your discussion, always refer to the graphic by number and explain specifically what you are referring to. Give your graphic element a descriptive caption as well. The rule for presenting a graphic is first to introduce it by name, show it, and then interpret it. The results section is usually written in past tense. The distinction between the results section and the discussion section is not always so clear-cut. Although many writers think you should simply present and report your findings on the data you have collected, others believe some evaluation and commentary on your data may be appropriate and even necessary The Discussion SectionYour discussion section should generalize on what you have learned from your research. One way to generalize is to explain the consequences or meaning of your results. You may need to relate specific results to a more general context, such as interpreting results in terms of wider society, or comparing results with other research. Your discussion should be organized so that it relates directly to your thesis. You want to avoid introducing new ideas here or discussing issues not directly related to your thesis. This section, along with the introduction, is usually written in present tense. The Conclusions and Recommendations SectionConclusions unify your research results and discussion and relate them to your thesis. Your conclusion ties your research to your thesis, joining together all the main ideas in your thinking and writing. By presenting the logical outcome of your research and thinking, your conclusion answers your research question or problem that you began with in the introduction. You may present recommendations in your research assignment. If so, you will want to add them to your conclusion section. For example, you may recommend a course of action, make a prediction, propose a solution to a problem, offer a judgment, or speculate on the implications and consequences of your ideas. The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in present tense. The Reference ListOf course, your research paper is not complete without your list of references.
research methods - questionnaireResearch Methods (1) Questionnaire Surveys
Questionnaire surveys are one very important method of gathering original data for analysis in social and market (business) research. However, the process of preparing and designing a questionnaire, and of analyzing the data is not as simple as it may seem.
1. Identify the aim of the research – what information are you trying to gather from the survey? There are two basic methods – using an interviewer (a person to ask the questions) [either in person, or by telephone etc.] or a written (or e-mail) questionnaire in which the respondent writes directly (called a self-administered questionnaire). It is important to explain in either case the purpose of the questionnaire, and what it will be used for. 4. Questionnaire design a. determine the questions ii. simplicity Questions should be easy to understand and answer, otherwise people will not bother to complete the questionnaire. Interesting questions will help motivate people to answer. Often, a question may not be a question at all, but a statement with which the respondent can either agree or disagree. b. select the type of question i. open vs. closed questions An open question is one to which respondents can reply in any way they want. Closed questions give a range of options from which the respondents should choose. Open questions can get more individual, accurate and detailed answers, BUT the data is often difficult to analyze later, so wherever possible, closed questions are preferable. Closed questions should give a complete list of likely responses, and if uncertain, a choice for “other” – please specify. [e.g. What do you think is the most important thing for university students today?] ii. single vs. multiple answers A single answer is normally preferable, as data can be more easily analyzed, but in some cases, multiple answers may be accepted. [e.g. How do you travel to university a car b bus c bike d train] Can be turned into a single answer by adding most often iii. ranking answers Where answers are ranked according to attitudes, importance etc. (1 as most important). These can often be difficult for respondents to choose, so should be kept to a minimum iv. rating answers These are very popular in social research – giving a rating (1-5, 1-10 etc.) to your feeling about a certain statement. c. Question wording i. clear and unambiguous avoid jargon and words respondents may not be familiar with. Remove words like “recently” which are vague and depend on the interpretation of the respondent. Replace with specific words (in the last two weeks). ii. avoid double questions e.g. Do you think that students should eat less and exercise more? iii. avoid double negatives They cause confusion for respondents: Are you against a ban on smoking? iv. precise answers are easier to analyze and more useful: Give your age on Sep.1 2006 v. avoid “leading” questions. Questions that tempt the respondent to give a certain answer will invalidate the data. “Do you agree with President Hu Jintao that…” vi. contingency questions Sometimes, a question may only be applicable to some of the respondents. You can solve this by making use of layout, so that respondents do not waste time reading sections not related to them. E.g. (Do you have a boyfriend / girlfriend? If yes, How often do you see each other? Etc. etc.) d. design the sequence and layout i. order of questions Note that the order in which questions are asked can affect the answers given, so think about this carefully! It is usually best to begin with the most interesting questions, and leave questions about demographic data to the end. ii. layout of the page Do not clutter the page. Make sure there is only one question on each line, and that the information is indented so that a respondent will not miss a question by mistake. iii. space for answering boxes [ ] or ( ) are best for single responses. A scale can be used for rating or ranking. Try to be consistent wherever practical. Give careful instructions on whether to circle, cross out or tick, cross etc. so that data analysis is made easier.
5. Check and test the questionnaire to find any problems
We will deal with this in another class.
Your job now is (in pairs) to design a questionnaire survey that we are going to give to 2nd year students. I want you to take this activity seriously, and to prepare a questionnaire ready for use before next week. I will collect them, select the most appropriate questions and then give the survey to Aaron to give the second year students. We will then collect the survey and do some basic analysis to elicit some results.
The purpose of the research is to find out something about “How Chinese students view themselves and their position in the modern world” December 20 library research and references1. How to deal with sources Sources or references are one common stumbling block for Chinese students. I think this problem comes about because of different cultural background, and confusing information, so I want to take a little time to review the purpose of using references, how to quote, and finally how to write references in your research papers.
In China, it is common for educated people to quote from classical Chinese works – this is a sign of scholarship or learning. Because everyone is expected to “know” the classics, there is no need to tell people where the quote comes from. If people don’t know where it comes from, then they are simply showing there own lack of learning or ignorance.
Many Western works of literature also use quotes from the bible or classical Greek and Latin works and assume that the reader will recognize the reference. This is often one reason why literature is very difficult for people from another culture to understand, even when they understand the vocabulary.
However, university research and academic papers follow a very different principle, and for good reasons. Firstly, there is a huge amount of research which takes place every day of every week at universities and institutions around the world. No-one is able to read even a fraction of the research that is carried out around the world each year, even in their own specialized field. Therefore, in order to help the reader refer to the original research, the writer must include a reference to any other work that they source in their writing. There is another very important reason why references must be given in academic papers. In order to show that a fact or evidence is true, the reader must be able to examine the source to check its methods and conclusions. This is the basis of scientific research – common methods must produce common results. This is especially true when there is a difference between two sources. For example, recently in their essays, two students found some information that says China requires more energy input per dollar of GDP than Japan – but one found 7 times as much, and another 11 times as much. Unless we can examine carefully the basis and reliability of the source, we do not know which one to believe. In other words, the source helps to establish the reliability of the information.
Now, you may ask, why do you need to use references at all? What is wrong with your own opinion? I sometimes hear students say “My opinion is just as good as your opinion.” I’m sorry, but this is simply not true! If this were true, there would be no need for you to study anything at all. The fact is that the opinion of an expert is much more reliable than the opinion of someone with no experience. Think about it – if you want to know whether an English sentence is correct or not, will you ask a native speaker, or a road worker on the street?
Of course, I am not saying that your opinions are worthless. I believe that it is very important for you to have opinions. But, what I am saying is, if you are really interested in learning the truth, you must constantly test your opinions against those of experts, and against real experience. Only in this way can you discover whether your opinion can really be supported or not. To believe a view, and to argue it is good. But, to stick to a view when others have argued more convincingly that another view is correct, that is just being stubborn. In university study, it is never a shame to admit that you were wrong about something. Mistakes are common to every human. We may have mistaken beliefs, mistaken views, mistaken opinions about how things work. What makes you a real scientist, a real researcher, is that you are constantly looking for your own mistakes, and when you find them, you accept the mistake and move on. Mistakes are not a shame, but refusing to accept or learn from a mistake – that is what prevents progress and holds society back.
That does not mean that experts are always right either. Experts can be and are often wrong – they too, are human after all. But, the chances that an expert will be right are higher than the chances that someone with little or no knowledge will be right. A reference to an expert or study by other researchers is often the easiest way to support an argument. After all, unless it is a completely new point of view, you are unlikely to be the first person to argue in that way.
When you search the internet, there is a huge range of personal opinions, from common people, children to experts. The advantage of the internet is that it gives everyone a chance to express their own views. The disadvantage is that there is a lot of rubbish on the internet. When you are looking for information to support your ideas, try to find academic papers or sites maintained by official or knowledgeable sources, rather than a personal opinion in a blog.
Remember that using other people’s research to support your own is NOT the same as stealing other people’s research. Perhaps a simple analogy will help you to understand this better: Do you think it is wrong to steal money from a bank? Would you do it? No. It is illegal, and if you get caught, you are in big trouble. On the other hand, getting a loan from the bank to help you buy a house or car – there is nothing wrong with this, as long as you pay the money back. Now, people’s writing is like money to them. It is what they have produced through their own effort. If you copy and use their writing as your own, then you are like a bank robber. On the other hand, if you borrow their words in order to support your own research or point of view and pay them back by carefully writing a reference to their work, then you are like a person who takes out a bank loan.
The key to this is that you do not steal the other person’s work, or even their idea, but borrow it (and acknowledge the borrowing) in order to support YOUR OWN work. If you simply borrow lots of other people’s words and put them together, you are not building your own house! You must have your own idea first, and then use other’s ideas and words to support your own idea. Remember, even using an idea from someone else’s work is stealing, unless you pay them back by referring to their work.
So, now that I hope you understand the importance of references, how do you use them in your writing? The first thing to remember is that, unless the words are especially memorable (I have a dream!), it is much better to read the original carefully, then put away the source, and rewrite the idea completely in your own words. Then, you STILL must “pay” for borrowing by citing the reference! If you use a direct quote, make sure the words are exact, and surround them in quotation marks “ ”. If you are going to quote more then two lines, separate the quote from the rest of your text as in the example.
Whether you use direct or indirect quotes, you need to put the reference in one of two ways. Either put a footnote (or endnote) at the end of the quote, or use the scientific method of using the author’s surname and year of publication. See the examples.
When you are citing your references at the end of your paper, please use the following method:
If your reference is in Chinese, you can either translate it, or create a separate section in the references for Chinese sources. A reminder:
It is good (often necessary) to use
other people’s work to support your own ideas. You MUST reference (pay for) any ideas or words that you borrow from others It is bad to copy a large
amount from one source
2. Library research
The purpose of library research is to get a basic understanding of the issues involved in your area of interest, to examine any existing theories, and to identify an area that has been poorly researched. It is NOT to copy someone else’s theory or research and pretend that it is your own! A good research paper will include a section called a “literature review”, which means a summary of what is known about the subject of your research. Nowadays, much library research is no longer done in the library, but on the internet. However, the principle is the same – your purpose is to find out WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN (so you don’t waste time repeating someone else’s research), and to CRITICALLY REVIEW it. This means you think carefully about what you read, NOT just accept it. One common problem for Chinese students is that often you accept what other people have written without carefully thinking it through. If you do not critically review others’ work, you may miss an opportunity to show that the person is wrong. It is not a case of “you have your opinion and I have mine”, but “I’ll show everyone that my opinion is better than yours”. Only in this way can the world make progress.
Discussion: Progress and development: What is progress? How do we make progress? Why do some countries progress faster than others? How can we stimulate progress? (10 minutes)
3. Fresh comparison
Often, research consists of comparing
one set of information with another set.
However, it should be a fresh comparison – not one that has been done
before. For example, a former student
of mine compared the multicultural nature of tourism enterprises in Thailand and
Yunnan – how multi-cultural the tourism industry was, how friendly the tourism
enterprises were to foreign cultures etc.
It is very common in China for students to compare a character from a
literary work in English to a character from Chinese literature. However, please note that just repeating
what other people have written is NOT original research! A comparison between Jane Eyre and Lin Dayu
from Hong Loumeng is not new!!
4. A case study
A case study is a study which takes an existent theory and then tests it in a particular situation to see whether the theory is applicable, and how accurately it can predict the outcomes. For example, a former student of mine did a case study during her work experience as a teacher in a middle school in Kunming. She took a theory of motivational factors in language learning, and tested it in her classroom to see whether its conclusions were also true in the class she was teaching. This kind of research is also common, but the case should be a valid case – if a very similar case has been done before, there should be very good reason to suspect the results before you do it again.
Of course, it is common, and perhaps best, to combine some or all of these methods in order to guarantee the accuracy and validity of the research. A case study may include a questionnaire survey, recorded interviews, and a comparison between conditions in the case study area and those in other researched areas. Let us look at an example: research methods - observationReseach methods - Observation
Last week we looked at one method of research – asking people by means of a questionnaire survey. To remind you, we found there were four basic ways of research – asking, watching, trying, and reading. Today we are going to focus on the “watching” method, but before we do, I think we need to take a step back and consider a very important question: What is science? I want to consider this question, because I have discovered from reading your arguments that perhaps we are not necessarily coming from a common background in terms of this question, and it is an important question to consider in that “scientific methods of research” are generally considered to be by far the strongest support for a thesis in western university tradition. So, I want you in pairs or threes to quickly consider a definition for science: 1) How would you define “science” for a child? 2) How would you explain science for a dictionary? 3) What is a scientific method? Give some specific examples.
So, which of these would you consider to be a “science”? (history, chemistry, physics, astronomy, astrology, writing, painting, archaeology, biology, marketing, accounting etc.)
Good, now, observation is a key word in the study of science – we observe what happens in certain circumstances, and then record what we have observed. Observation may seem to be a very objective and scientific method of researching and understanding a phenomenon, BUT, we must not conclude this so simply. One of the problems with observation, even of places that we are very familiar with, is that we tend to notice certain things, and ignore, overlook, or simply forget about other things! What things did you overlook? What things did you forget? What things did you get wrong??
In the social sciences, which most of you will be involved in, observation is not as simple as observing a rock. There are usually considered to be two extremes in terms of observing human activity – or social and cultural activity, which is what most of you will be doing.
1) (undisclosed) Participant 2) Participant as observer 3) Observer as participant 4) Outside (invisible) observer.
Example: this class 1. student who observes and reports without teacher or other students noticing (spy) 2. student who tells everyone she or he is observing and reporting on the class 3. English department dean who comes to watch the class – we know she is watching and recording 4. dean who stands outside the door and watches without any of us knowing.
In pairs or threes, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods of observation, and give an example when you think each one would be most appropriate. Remember, we are talking about research which involves living, social and cultural humans in some way or another – not rocks or bones. Are there any problems or advantages that several or all the problems have in common?
Many examples of research will of course contain a combination of direct and participant observation, and even of interviews or surveys. For example, in my first year in university I did some courses in sociology, and one of my research projects was to try to understand the eating habits of students who live in flats. So, this research involved me 1) carefully observing my flatmates, to see what they ate, when they ate, etc. I was alos a flat member, so I had to record my own diet as well. Then, I interviewed my flatmates, to discover their attitudes to what they ate – what they thought about the food they ate, how much it cost them, whether they were happy with their diet etc. Then, I had to reflect on my own attitudes. Finally, I had to write a report to discuss what the results of my research could show about flat students’ eating habits. Direct Observation—In this instance, students are asked to find a setting they wish to observe in which they will be able to observe without interruption and in which they will not be participating. For some specified length of time (about 15 to 30 minutes), they are asked to record everything they can take in through their senses about that setting and the interactions contained therein for the duration of the time period, again recording on one side of the paper their field notes from observation and on the other side their thoughts, feelings, and ideas about what is happening. Part of the lesson here is that, when researchers are recording aspects of the observation, whether it be the physical characteristics of the setting or interactions between participants, they are unable to both observe and record. This exercise is also good practice for getting them to write detailed notes about what is or is not happening, about the physical surroundings, and about interactions, particularly conversations and the nonverbal behaviors that go along with those conversations. what is research?What is research
A university is really place which is about encouraging research – but you as students have done little research until now. Those of you contemplating post-graduate study need to know more about research, but research skills are really life skills – skills that will help you in getting ahead in the society of the future.
Research is, in simple words, the process of actively (by yourself) finding out about something you do not understand. Let’s take a very simple example. Here are [a pair of chopsticks]. Now, let’s say I have never seen these before, so I don’t know what they are, or how they are used. I can find out about these things in several ways:
1. Ask other people what they are 2. Look in a book to find out what they are 3. Watch and see how they are used, or how they work. 4. Try using them in various ways in an attempt to discover a use for them
I may use one or all of these methods, and then I can report the result that these are called chopsticks, that they are used in China (and other Asian countries) as a tool for eating (and they may have other uses too!!).
This is a very simple example, but it explains the process of even the most complicated research in even the most abstract of fields.
If a new chemical compund or physical phenomenon is observed that is not understood, research will begin using the steps given above. If a new archaeological object is found, the same steps will be taken. If a new linguistic feature is found, the same process will be enacted And if a new social problem emerges, the same process will be followed.
In other words, no matter what we study, we use the same basic principles of research to find out what something is and how it works / why it appears.
The structure of a research paper is also very similar across all subjects, based on these same simple principles.
1. Describe what you want to understand (the unknown object; unsolved problem etc.) and why you want to research it. 2. Describe how you are going to do the research 3. Describe the results that you found when you used the methods you described 4. Discuss the meaning of the results, what you have learned from the research, and what needs to be done next.
These five stages can be relabelled quite simply as 1. Introduction and aim / purpose of research 2. Method(s) 3. Result(s) 4. Discussion 5. Conclusion(s)revising a draftRevising Your Draft Revising the draft of a composition is not a short, simple process. It does NOT mean simply reading through and finding any spelling mistakes. In fact, it really needs to be done in at least TWO stages.
1. Revise your draft from the point of view of content, structure, and style. 2. Revise your draft looking for language problems, including grammar, spelling and punctuation.
1. Content l Each composition should have only ONE thesis statement (point of view) and EVERYTHING you include in your body should be directly intended to PROVE that ONE statement is true. Anything else, no matter how interesting, should be removed. l If you make a claim or give a reason that may be disputed, make sure you support it with either an expert source, or statisitcs or good, real examples. Don’t just expect that the reader will agree with you!
2. Structure Paragraph structure: 1. introduction: Finish with your THESIS STATEMENT clearly written. 2. Body Paragraphs Topic sentence; support; concluding sentence. Your topic sentence should be a general statement of the argument for that WHOLE paragraph, and should be DIRECTLY related to your THESIS STATEMENT Support should be clearly identified by a marker (For example etc.) 3. Conclusion should restate your main points (your topic sentences from each paragraph) in short form, and then conclude with a final statement of strength or recommendation etc.
4. Style Academic essays are some of the most formal writing (perhaps with the exception of legal writing). You should NOT be using colloquial phrases (rubbish; nonsense; stupid etc.), or cliches. You should try to choose more formal expressions, rather than colloquial ones. Some suggestions for improving your style: 1. try to use single word verbs, rather than phrasal verbs; cut out any unnessary short words. 2. try to remove any sexist or biased language 3. remove unnessary jargon if using sources – rewrite in YOUR OWN WORDS unless direct quoting. 4. Be assertive
5. References List sources alphabetically. You can use footnotes instead of references in the text, but follow the same format.
Direct quotes MUST have quotation marks. Do NOT direct quote more than a few lines. structure of an essay - reviewThe way that you structure an argumentative essay is based on the same basic principles as structuring a short composition. a) Introduction contains any background information, hook etc. It should introduce the topic and (at the end) clearly state your thesis statement. b) The discussion / body is where you present your evidence to support your thesis statement. As a general rule, each piece of evidence should form a paragraph, and have enough detail to show that it is both accurate and authoritative. c) The conclusion reminds the reader of your main evidence, and then restates your thesis statement in different words.
In a longer composition (500 words), the introduction and conclusion will be very similar to the short composition, the only difference being that you may need to add a definition of an important word, or more information about the choice of your topic in the introduction. Remember, the conclusion is not just one sentence that repeats your thesis statement – you must provide a short summary of your most important points.
The most important difference between a short and longer composition is in the quality and quantity of evidence, and in the way in which it is arranged.
Evidence should be arranged carefully, in the way that best proves your point. The way that evidence is best arranged will vary depending on the topic and type of evidence. Generally speaking, you need to arrange the evidence in a format that is consistent – for example according to time, or from least important to most important, most familiar to least familiar etc. Look at your own evidence, and think carefully about the order. Is there any evidence which fits naturally together? Does any evidence rely on the existence of other evidence? Once you have decided these points, you can consider the order in which you will present your argument.
It is generally better to deal with counter-evidence before you set out your own evidence. The reason is that a composition is usually arranged climatically – the climax, or most memorable moment, comes at the end. Therefore, it is better to deal with counter-evidence first, and then focus on your own argument.
Proportion is another important factor in a composition. You need to keep a balance between your introduction, discussion and conclusion. The introduction and conclusion should not be more than…
In an exam, you have no opportunity to gather evidence from other sources except what you remember in your own head, but in an assignment, sources are very important, because they help to show that your evidence is authoritative. Copying without giving credit to the source is plagiarism, it is theft, and it is always unacceptable. evidence and counter-evidenceEvidence and Counter-evidence
1. What is evidence? Evidence is facts, opinions, anecdotes, illustrations and clarifying examples that support your thesis statement. Each item of evidence must support your thesis statement. a. Facts are most frequently used as evidence in academic essays. They may include names, dates, events and other specific pieces of information such as statistics gathered from research. b. Authoritative opinions can also be used as evidence to support your argument. They may include the opinions of authorities in the field, or your own opinion as long as it is grounded in solid fact. c. Anecdotes, or short stories, can make an essay more interesting, and make an argument easier to understand.
2. Rules of evidence In academic writing, there are some basic rules that should be followed when using evidence a. Each fact must be accurate i. Make sure you have not made an error in copying down a quote or piece of information, particularly dates, numbers and names of people ii. Treat statistics with caution – make sure you understand how the statistics were gathered and what they refer to. iii. Do not use quotes out of context. A quote must reflect the original meaning that the author intended. You cannot change a quote to suit your own purposes! b. Each fact must be authoritative i. Each piece of information should come from a reliable source. ii. If you use information from a biased source, you must acknowledge this, and it will weaken your evidence. iii. Avoid material that is very old or out of date. Try to find the latest information. Make sure the information has not been revised or changed by later research. c. Each fact must be relevant i. Do not use facts or issues that are not relevant to your argument. d. The number of facts must be adequate to prove your point i. The number of facts, or amount of evidence you need depends on the argument. In general, the more generally accepted your point is, the fewer facts you need to convince people. ii. Beware of using too much evidence. The reader may get lost in too much detail. e. The facts should be arranged in a way that best proves your point f. Do NOT manipulate your evidence to make it support your thesis i. Do not overlook significant factors, individuals or events ii. Do not ignore evidence that goes against your thesis
3. Some common problems with evidence a. Not enough instances to prove a point b. Don’t use famous names as sole proof of a point c. Don’t praise or blame the people who state some evidence – and ignore the idea d. Don’t try to prove something by saying that people always believed in a certain thing e. Don’t try to prove something by showing that everyone is doing it. f. Don’t try to prove something by saying the same thing over and over again. g. Don’t use an unreliable source to support your idea h. Don’t make a comparison that is weak or untrue i. Don’t appeal to a person’s unreasonable emotions j. Don’t draw conclusions that do not naturally follow from the previous information. k. Don’t generalize – make one fact the source of a broad conclusion l. Don’t try to show that just because something happened after something else, that the second thing is necessarily the result of the event m. Don’t state your argument in either-or terms, when more than two possibilities exist. n. Don’t use a red herring to distract the reader from the argument
The type of evidence that is best will depend to some extent on your topic or subject. While “hard” science usually requires clear statistical evidence based on experiment, philosophy may require the use of logical reasoning, and social science may require the use of considerable anecdotal evidence and quotes from authorities. Consider carefully which kind of evidence you think will be MOST convincing in the case of your topic. If you are not sure, try looking at arguments about the topic that other people have made – what kind of evidence did they use?
4. What to do about counter-evidence If your topic is truly controversial, there will almost certainly be some evidence which seems to support the other side of the argument. In an academic argument, it is not good to simply ignore the counter-evidence. In fact, you can sometimes use counter-evidence to your own advantage. a. First, you should try to anticipate any counter-arguments that may exist. If you were going to argue the opposite side, what evidence might you use? b. Decide whether you will accept the counter-evidence as valid, or reject it. If you accept it as a valid argument, you must explain why it does not affect your overall argument. If you reject the counter-evidence, you must explain why it is mistaken. c. Do not try to make the counter-evidence look foolish. Treat it with respect, even if you are going to reject it. In this way, you can show the reader that you seriously considered all sides of an argument before deciding which argument was strongest. d. It is usually better to consider one or two counter-arguments carefully, rather than give a long list without any detail. e. If you find that the counter-evidence is stronger than your own evidence, you will need to go back and reconsider your thesis statement. argument and the argumentative essayThe Argumentative Essay
At university in the West, an essay is usually given to help the student learn three things:
For most of us, an argument is a verbal fight we have when we disagree or are angry with someone else. Sometimes, arguments become violent and turn into physical fights. However, in university, argument has a different meaning.
If you are asked to write an argumentative essay, your task is to persuade an educated, critical reader (someone who will read what you say carefully, rather than just accepting or rejecting your point of view) that your point of view on a topic is correct. You cannot do this (in university writing) by making emotional pleas, or simply by listing one fact after another. Instead, you must make a well-reasoned and coherent argument that is based on good evidence.
As one writer says, at university:
We argue not because we are angry, but because arguing causes us to examine our own and others’ ideas carefully. It causes us to weigh conflicting claims; to make judgments about the nature of evidence; to state our thoughts clearly, accurately and honestly; to consider respectfully and critically the views of others.
The idea of you, a student, arguing your own point of view on a difficult topic may seem strange, as this is not often expected of Chinese students. However, in Western education, students are encouraged to form their own view on a given topic, and then support this view with evidence. This is what an academic paper is expected to do, and failure to do so will usually lead to a low mark.
Therefore, during the first part of this term, we will be focusing on how to make a well-reasoned and logical argument. Before we begin, we need to look at a few basic issues in writing an argumentative essay.
1. The Topic
Until now, most of the topics you have been asked to write about have been given to you, and this will continue to be the case in exams. However, as advanced students, I believe it is time you had more freedom to choose your own topics. I want to encourage you to search and find your own topics as much as possible, to give you freedom to discover and develop your own ideas and opinions. However, in choosing your own topic, you need to be aware of a few basic principles:
a. The topic must not be too broad If the topic is too broad, you will not be able to write a coherent essay. For example “The Chinese Education System” is much too big a topic for one argumentative essay. You must spend time narrowing the topic to something that is manageable. b. The topic must be accessible Choose a topic that you can find relevant data and evidence about. c. The topic should be controversial You should choose a topic about which there is controversy or disagreement. This is very important, because there is little point in arguing about something that everybody already accepts. For example a topic such as “Apples are good for you” would not normally be acceptable. If, however, you have good evidence that something most people accept as true is actually NOT correct, then this is a good topic for an argumentative essay. d. The topic should really interest you Since you are going to spend some time reading, thinking and writing about your topic, be sure you are interested in it. If you get bored, so will the reader of your essay. Don’t just pick a topic because you think it is easy! Think about who you are. What are your special interests, experiences or abilities that could help you write an interesting essay?
2. Topic Questions
Once you have decided on your topic, you need to ask questions about it. Why is the topic controversial? How is it important? Where? When? Who? What? The more questions you can think of, the better!
Asking questions about your topic can help in several ways. Firstly, it can help you to narrow the topic to one aspect or issue involved, so that your essay will be focused and not too broad. Second, it can give you ideas about the information and evidence you need to find in order to form an argument. And finally, thinking about the answers to the questions can help you to form your own point of view.
When you have a number of questions, try to choose one that will become the main focus of your essay.
3. The Thesis Statement
Later in term we are going to look more carefully at writing a thesis statement, but for now, you can think of the thesis statement as a simple sentence that expresses your point of view or claim about the controversial topic you have chosen. Make sure that your thesis statement:
a. states your point of view in a clear and unequivocal way (try to avoid “maybe”, “possibly” etc.) b. is short and simple c. is limited to ONE main idea about your topic. |
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